Anatomy of the Female Breast

Anatomically, there is great variability among female breasts, particularly with regard to size, shape, density, skin thickness, and relative composition. Although all female breasts consist of glandular tissue, adipose tissue, and connective tissue, the percentage composition of these structures varies with age, hormonal status, parity, and body mass and has implications for the biomechanical behaviour of the breast  (Gehlsen and Stoner, 1987; Torres-Mejía et al., 2005; Gefen and Dilmoney, 2007; McGhee and Steele, 2020; Galbreath and Goswami, 2025). The size and shape of female breasts also differs widely (McGhee and Steele, 2011; Coltman, Steele and McGhee, 2018; McGhee and Steele, 2020; Brooke R. Brisbine et al., 2020a), with researchers reporting breast volumes ranging from 48–3100ml in the general female population (Coltman, Steele and McGhee, 2017) and 85–1616 mL in athletic populations (Brooke R. Brisbine et al., 2020a; Brisbine et al., 2025). Although breast mass can exceed one kilogram (Gehlsen and Stoner, 1987; Turner and Dujon, 2005; McGhee et al., 2013), breasts have no muscular or skeletal support and are instead supported only by the overlying skin of the anterior chest and a lattice-like network of internal suspensory ligaments (Mason, Page and Fallon, 1999; Gaskin, 2017; McGhee and Steele, 2020; Galbreath and Goswami, 2025). This limited anatomical support renders breasts susceptible to excessive movement and associated pain, as well as frictional and contact injuries, which contribute to potential health concerns and performance detriments for women involved in sport, especially rugby.